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The book Building Back Truth in an Age of Misinformation focuses on solutions to the problem of misinformation and information disorder. It organizes these solutions into six paths.

Below is a curated list of readings on understanding the problem of misinformation followed by the six paths that focus on solutions.

Understand the Problem (Information Disorder, Politics, Public Health)

• Penelope Muse Abernathy, “The Rise of the Ghost Newspaper,” in “The Expanding News Desert,” UNC: Hussman School of Journalism and Media, 2018, https://www.usnewsdeserts.com/reports/expanding-news-desert/loss-of-local-news/the-rise-of-the-ghost-newspaper/#easy-footnote-bottom-9-2820.
• Julia Angwin, “The Challenge of Regulating Algorithms,” Revue, October 23, 2021, https://www.getrevue.co/profile/themarkup/issues/the-challenge-of-regulating-algorithms-813783.
• Amy Ross Arguedas et al., “Echo Chambers, Filter Bubbles, and Polarisation: A Literature Review,” Reuters, January 19, 2022, https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/echo-chambers-filter-bubbles-and-polarisation-literature-review
• Aspen Institute. “Experts Weigh in on Scope of Commission on Information Disorder.” Commission on Information Disorder, April 20, 2021. https://www.aspeninstitute.org/blog-posts/experts-weigh-in-on-scope-of-commission-on-information-disorder/.
• Bode, Leticia and Emily K. Vraga. “See Something, Say Something: Correction of Global Health Misinformation on Social Media.” Health Communication 33, no. 9 (2018): 1131-1140. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2017.1331312.
• Born, Kelly. “The Future of Truth: Can Philanthropy Help Mitigate Misinformation?” Hewlett Foundation. June 8, 2017. https://hewlett.org/future-truth-can-philanthropy-help-mitigate-misinformation/
• Chayka, Kyle. “What Google Search Isn’t Showing You.” The New Yorker. (March 10, 2022). https://www.newyorker.com/culture/infinite-scroll/what-google-search-isnt-showing-you
• CMU Ambassadors, “Many Twitter Accounts Spreading COVID-19 Falsehoods May Be Bots,” Carnegie Mellon University, July 2020, https://www.cmu.edu/ambassadors/july-2020/covid-falsehoods.html.
• Nicholas Confessore, “How Tucker Carlson Stoked White Fear to Conquer Cable,” New York Times, April 30, 2022, https://www.nytimes.com/2022/04/30/us/tucker-carlson-gop-republican-party.html.
• John Cook, “Understanding and Countering Misinformation about Climate Change,” in Research Anthology on Environmental and Societal Impacts of Climate Change, ed. Management Association, Information Resources (Hershey, PA: IGI Global, 2022), 1633–58, https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-6684-3686-8.ch081.
• Cook, Katy. The Psychology of Silicon Valley: Ethical Threats and Emotional Unintelligence in the Tech Industry. London, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-27364-4.
• David Dayen, “What’s Up with Twitter’s Content Moderation Policies?” American Prospect (blog), March 5, 2021, https://prospect.org/power/whats-up-with-twitters-content-moderation-policies.
• Disinformation Research Group, “Disinformation Reports,” Federation of American Scientists, last modified 2022, https://fas.org/ncov/disinformation-reports.
• Donovan, Joan. “How Civil Society Can Combat Misinformation and Hate Speech Without Making It Worse.” Medium. (September 28, 2020). https://medium.com/political-pandemonium-2020/how-civil-society-can-combat-misinformation-and-hate-speech-without-making-it-worse-887a16b8b9b6
• Donovan, Joan, Emily Dreyfuss, Gabrielle Lim, and Brian Friedberg. “Disinformation at Scale Threatens Freedom of Expression Worldwide.” Shorenstein Center on Media, Politics and Public Policy (February 15, 2021). https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Issues/Expression/disinformation/3-Academics/Harvard-Shorenstein-Center.pdf.
• Robert Epstein and Ronald E. Robertson, “The Search Engine Manipulation Effect (SEME) and Its Possible Impact on the Outcomes of Elections,” PNAS 112, no.33 (August 2015): E4512–21, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1419828112.
• Craig I. Forman, “Solutions to America’s Local Journalism Crisis: Consolidated Literature Review,” Harvard Kennedy School: Shorenstein Center on Media, Politics and Public Policy, October 12, 2021, https://shorensteincenter.org/solutions-americas-local-journalism-crisis-consolidated-literature-review/#_ftn2.
• Gallo, Jason A. and Clare Y. Cho. Social Media: Misinformation and Content Moderation Issues for Congress. Congressional Research Service, 2021. https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R46662
• Garrett, R. Kelly. “The ‘Echo Chamber’ Distraction: Disinformation Campaigns are the Problem, Not Audience Fragmentation.” Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition 6, no. 4 (2017): 370–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmac.2017.09.011.
• Gehrman, Elizabeth. “The Isolation Of Social Media: Social Media Should Promote Conversation and Exchange, yet Increasingly it doesn’t.” Harvard Medicine (Spring, 2022). https://hms.harvard.edu/magazine/viral-world/isolation-social-media
• Geiger, Nathaniel. “Do People Actually ‘Listen to the Experts’? A Cautionary Note on Assuming Expert Credibility and Persuasiveness on Public Health Policy Advocacy.” Health Communication. (December 2020). https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2020.1862449.
• Dipayan Ghosh, “It’s All in the Business Model: The Internet’s Economic Logic and the Instigation of Disinformation, Hate, and Discrimination.” Georgetown Journal of International Affairs 21 (Fall 2020): 129–35, https://doi.org/10.1353/gia.2020.0012.
• Kayla Gogarty, “Trump Used Facebook to Amplify Fox News and Its Personalities. Of Course the Network Wants Him Reinstated,” Media Matters for America, May 11, 2021, https://www.mediamatters.org/fox-news/trump-used-facebook-amplify-fox-news-and-its-personalities-course-network-wants-him.
• Colin M. Gray et al., “The Dark (Patterns) Side of UX Design,” Proceedings of the 2018 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems—CHI ’18 (New York: ACM Press, 2018): 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1145/3173574.3174108.
• Grind, Kirsten, Schechner, Sam, McMillan, Robert and John West. “How Google Interferes With Its Search Algorithms and Changes Your Results.” Wall Street Journal. November 15, 2019. https://www.wsj.com/articles/how-google-interferes-with-its-search-algorithms-and-changes-your-results-11573823753.
• Rebecca Heilweil, “Why Algorithms Can Be Racist and Sexist,” Vox, February 18, 2020, https://www.vox.com/recode/2020/2/18/21121286/algorithms-bias-discrimination-facial-recognition-transparency.
• Jarrett, Caitlin, Wilson, Rose, O’Leary, Maureen, Eckersberger, Elisabeth and Heidi J. Larson. “Strategies For Addressing Vaccine Hesitancy: A Systematic Review.” Vaccine 33, no. 34 (August 2015): 4180-90, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2015.04.040.
• Adrianne Jeffries and Leon Yin, “Google’s Top Search Result? Surprise, It’s Google,” The Markup, July 28, 2020, https://themarkup.org/google-the-giant/2020/07/28/google-search-results-prioritize-google-products-over-competitors.
• Michiko Kakutani. The Death of Truth (New York: Duggan Books, 2018).
• Knight Foundation, “Disinformation, ‘Fake News’ and Influence Campaigns on Twitter,” Knight Foundation, October 4, 2018, https://knightfoundation.org/reports/disinformation-fake-news-and-influence-campaigns-on-twitter
• Heidi Legg and Joe Kerwin, “The Fight against Disinformation in the U.S.: A Landscape Analysis,” Shorenstein Center on Media, Politics and Public Policy, November 2018, https://shorensteincenter.org/the-fight-against-disinformation-in-the-u-s-a-landscape-analysis; quoted with permission under a Creative Commons Attribution-NoDerivs 3.0 Unported License
• Stephan Lewandowsky et al., “Science by Social Media: Attitudes towards Climate Change are Mediated by Perceived Social Consensus,” Memory & Cognition 47, no. 18 (June 2019): 1445–56, https://doi.org/10.3758/s13421-019-00948-y.
• Safiya Umoja Noble, Algorithms of Oppression: How Search Engines Reinforce Racism (New York: NYU Press, 2018).
• Cailin O’Connor and James Owen Weatherall, The Misinformation Age: How False Beliefs Spread (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2019).
• Amy O’Hara and Jodi Nelson, “Combatting Digital Disinformation: An Evaluation of the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation’s Disinformation Strategy,” Hewlett Foundation, October 2020, https://hewlett.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/Final-Hewlett-evaluation-report-on-disinformation-.pdf.
• Nik Popli, “The 5 Most Important Revelations From the ‘Facebook Papers,’” Time, October 26, 2021, https://time.com/6110234/facebook-papers-testimony-explained.
• Gillian Reagan, “The Evolution of Facebook’s Mission Statement,” Observer, July 13, 2009, https://observer.com/2009/07/the-evolution-of-facebooks-mission-statement.
• Marc Rotenberg, “Regulating Privacy,” New York Times, May 6, 2018, https://www .nytimes .com/ 2018/ 05/ 06/ opinion/ letters/ regulating -privacy.html.
• Anya Schiffrin, ed., Media Capture: How Money, Digital Platforms, and Governments Control the News (New York: Columbia University Press, 2021).
• World Health Organization (WHO). “Let’s Flatten the Infodemic Curve,” n.d., https://www.who.int/news-room/spotlight/let-s-flatten-the-infodemic-curve.
• Zuboff, Shoshana. The Age of Surveillance Capitalism. New York: Public Affairs, 2019.

PATH 1: Learn to Protect Ourselves from Misinformation (Psychology, Sociology, Anthropology, Behavioral Economics)

• Amy Ross Arguedas et al., “Echo Chambers, Filter Bubbles, and Polarisation: A Literature Review,” Reuters, January 19, 2022, https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/echo-chambers-filter-bubbles-and-polarisation-literature-review
• Case Western Reserve University. “Why Some People are so Sure They’re Right, Even When They are Not: Insight Suggests Ways to Communicate with People Who Ignore Evidence that Contradicts Cherished Beliefs.” ScienceDaily, July 26, 2017.www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/07/170726103017.htm.
• Galef, Julia. The Scout Mindset: Why Some People See Things Clearly and Others Don’t. New York: Penguin, 2021.
• Gerd Gigerenzer, “Towards a Rational Theory of Heuristics,” in Minds, Models and Milieux: Archival Insights into the Evolution of Economics, ed. Roger Frantz and Leslie Marsh (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016), 34–59, https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137442505_3.
• Daniel Goleman, Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ (New York: Bantam Dell, 1994).
• Rainer Greifeneder et al., eds. The Psychology of Fake News: Accepting, Sharing, and Correcting Misinformation (New York: Routledge, 2021).
• Harris, Tristan. “Our Brains are no Match for Technology.” New York Times. December 5, 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/05/opinion/digital-technology-brain.html
• Hart, Joshua and Molly Graether. “Something’s Going on Here: Psychological Predictors of Belief in Conspiracy Theories.” Journal of Individual Differences 39, no. 4 (2018): 229–37. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000268.
• William Hart et al., “Feeling Validated versus Being Correct: A Meta-Analysis of Selective Exposure to Information,” Psychological Bulletin 135, no. 4 (2009): 555–88, https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015701.
• Daniel Kahneman, Thinking, Fast and Slow (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2011).
• Stephan Lewandowsky et al., “Misinformation and Its Correction: Continued Influence and Successful Debiasing,” Psychological Science in the Public Interest 13 (September 2012): 106–13, https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100612451018.
• Filippo Menczer and Thomas Hills, “Information Overload Helps Fake News Spread, and Social Media Knows It: Understanding How Algorithm Manipulators Exploit Our Cognitive Vulnerabilities Empowers Us to Fight Back,” Scientific American, December 1, 2020, https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/information-overload-helps-fake-news-spread-and-social-media-knows-it
• Lisa Merrill. “Feeling Validated Versus Being Correct: A Meta-Analysis of Selective Exposure to Information.” Psychological Bulletin 135, no. 4 (2009): 555–88. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015701.
• Gordon Pennycook, Tyrone D. Cannon, and David G. Rand, “Prior Exposure Increases Perceived Accuracy of Fake News,” Journal of Experimental Psychology-General 147, no. 12 (December 2018): 1865–80, https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000465.
• Carola Salvi et al., “Going Viral: How Fear, Socio-Cognitive Polarization and Problem-Solving Influence Fake News Detection and Proliferation during COVID-19 Pandemic,” Frontiers in Communication 5 (January 2021), https://doi.org/10.3389/fcomm.2020.562588.
• Norbert Schwarz and Madeline Jalbert, “When (Fake) News Feels True: Intuitions of Truth and the Acceptance and Correction of Misinformation,” in The Psychology of Fake News: Accepting, Sharing, and Correcting Misinformation, ed. Rainer Greifeneder, Mariela Jaffé, Eryn J. Newman, and Norbert Schwarz (New York: Routledge, 2021), 73–89; P. N.
• Tommy Shane, “The Psychology of Misinformation: Why We’re Vulnerable,” First Draft, June 30, 2020, https://firstdraftnews.org/latest/the-psychology-of-misinformation-why-were-vulnerable.
• Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman, “Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases,” in Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases, ed. Daniel Kahneman, Paul Slovic, and Amos Tversky (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 3–20, https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511809477.
• Joseph E. Uscinski, Casey Klofstad, and Matthew Atkinson, “What Drives Conspiratorial Beliefs? The Role of Informational Cues and Predispositions,” Political Research Quarterly 69 (January 2016), https://doi.org/10.1177/1065912915621621.

PATH 2: Teach Students to Play Offense against Misinformation (Education, Media Studies, Library and Information Science)

• Boyatzis, Richard, Smith, Melvin and Ellen Van Oosten. Helping People Change: Coaching with Compassion for Lifelong Learning and Growth. (Boston: Harvard Business Review Press, 2019.)
• boyd, danah. “Did Media Literacy Backfire?” Data & Society: Points, January 5, 2017. https://points.datasociety.net/did-media-literacy-backfire-7418c084d88d.
• boyd, dana. “You Think You Want Media Literacy…Do You?” Data & Society, (March 8, 2018). https://points.datasociety.net/you-think-you-want-medialiteracy-do-you-7cad6af18ec2.
• boyd, danah. “Knitting a Healthy Social Fabric,” Medium (May 20, 2021). https://zephoria.medium.com/knitting-a-healthy-social-fabric-86105cb92c1c
• Breakstone, Joel, Smith, Mark, Wineburg, Sam, Rapaport, Amie, Carle, Jill, Garland, M. and Anna Saavedra. “Students’ Civic Online Reasoning: A National Portrait.” Stanford History Education Group & Gibson Consulting, (2019). https://purl.stanford.edu/gf151tb4868.
• Buckingham, David. “Media Theory 101: Agency,” In Journal of Media Literacy 64, no. 1 and 2, edited by Marieli Rowe, Neil Anderson and Carol Arcus. (2017). https://aml.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/jml-agency.pdf.
• Bulger, Monica and Patrick Davison. “The Promises, Challenges and Futures of Media Literacy.” Journal of Media Literacy Education 10, no. 1 (2018): 1-21. https://digitalcommons.uri.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1365&context=jmle.
• Corbu, Nicoleta, Oprea, Denisa-Adriana, Negrea-Busuioc, Elena and Loredana Radu. “They Can’t Fool Me, but they can Fool the Others!: Third Person Effect and Fake News Detection.” European Journal of Communication 35, no. 2 (February 2020):165-80. https://doi.org/10.1177/0267323120903686.
• Davis, Pete. Commitment in an Age of Infinite Browsing. New York: Avid Reader/Simon & Schuster, 2021.
• Pete Davis, “Open Book: The Case for Commitment: Pete Davis Expands on his Commencement Address,” Harvard Magazine, July–August 2021, https://www.harvardmagazine.com/2021/06/montage-pete-davis
• Rodrigo Ferreira and Moshe Y. Vardi, “Deep Tech Ethics: An Approach to Teaching Social Justice in Computer Science,” Proceedings of the 52nd ACM Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education (March 2021): 1041–47, https://doi.org/10.1145/3408877.3432449.
• Fister, Barbara. “Lizard People in the Library.” Project Information Literacy: Provocation Series, February 3, 2021. https://projectinfolit.org/pubs/provocation-series/essays/lizard-people-in-the-library.html.
• Gordon, Eric and Paul Mihailidis, eds, Civic Media: Technology, Design, Practice. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2016.
• Head, Alison J., Fister, Barbara and Margy MacMillan. “Information Literacy in the Age of Algorithms: Student Experiences with News and Information, and the Need for Change.” Project Information Research Institute, (January 2020). https://projectinfolit.org/ publications/algorithm-study/.
• Hobbs, Renee. “Propaganda in an Age of Algorithmic Personalization: Expanding Literacy Research and Practice.” Reading Research Quarterly, (February, 2020).
• Alice Marwick et al., Critical Disinformation Studies: A Syllabus (Chapel Hill: Center for Information, Technology, & Public Life [CITAP], University of North Carolina, 2021), https://citap.unc.edu/critical-disinfo.
• Paul Mihailidis, “Civic Media Literacies: Re-Imagining Engagement for Civic Intentionality,” Learning, Media and Technology 43, no. 2 (2018): 152–64, https://doi.org/10.1080/17439884.2018.1428623.
• Ryan M. Milner and Whitney Phillips, “Cultivating Ecological Literacy,” in You Are Here: A Field Guide for Navigating Polarized Speech, Conspiracy Theories, and Our Polluted Media Landscape, by Whitney Phillips and Ryan M. Milner, April 2020 (excerpt), https://you-are-here.pubpub.org/pub/fc80dnhc (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2021).
• Lena V. Nordheim et al., “Effects of School-Based Educational Interventions for Enhancing Adolescents Abilities in Critical Appraisal of Health Claims: A Systematic Review,” PLoS ONE 11, no. 8 (2016), https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0161485.
• Whitney Phillips and Ryan Milner, You Are Here: A Field Guide for Navigating Polarized Speech, Conspiracy Theories, and Our Polluted Media Landscape (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2021).
• Päivi Rasi, Hanna Vuojärvi, and Susanna Rivinen, “Promoting Media Literacy among Older People: A Systematic Review,” Adult Education Quarterly 71, no. 1 (2021): 37–54, https://doi.org/10.1177/0741713620923755.
• Shari Tishman and Edward Clapp, “Agency by Design: Exploring Documentation and Assessment Strategies for Maker-Centered Learning,” Project Zero, 2020, https://pz.harvard.edu/projects/agency-by-design.

PATH 3: Design Tools to Create Healthier Digital Communities (Computer Science, AI, UX, Behavioral Economics, Psychology, Politics, Sociology)

• Born, “Future of Truth”; Briony Swire-Thompson, Joseph DeGutis, and David Lazer, “Searching for the Backfire Effect: Measurement and Design Considerations,” Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition 9, no. 3 (September 2020): 286–99, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmac.2020.06.006
• Nellie Bowles, “The Complex Debate over Silicon Valley’s Embrace of Content Moderation,” New York Times, June 5, 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/05/technology/twitter-trump-facebook-moderation.html.
• Lia Bozarth and Ceren Budak, “Market Forces: Quantifying the Role of Top Credible Ad Servers in the Fake News Ecosystem,” in Proceedings of the Fifteenth International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media, ed. Ceren Budak, Meeyoung Cha, Daniele Quercia, and Lexing Xie (2021), https://ojs.aaai.org/index.php/ICWSM/article/view/18043/17846.
• Bronstein, Michael V., Pennycook, Gordon, Bear, Adam, Rand, David G. and Tyrone Cannon. “Belief in Fake News is Associated with Delusionality, Dogmatism, Religious Fundamentalism, and Reduced Analytic Thinking.” Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition 8, no. 1 (March 2019):108–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmac.2018.09.005.
• Chan, Man-pui Sally, Jones, Christopher R., Hall Jamieson, Kathleen and Dolores Albarracín. “Debunking: A Meta-Analysis of the Psychological Efficacy of Messages Countering Misinformation.” Psychological Science 28, no. 11 (September 2017): 1531-46. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797617714579.
• Cinelli, Matteo, De Francisci Morales, Gianmarco, Galeazzi, Alessandro, Quattrociocchi, Walter and Michele Starnini. “The Echo Chamber Effect on Social Media.” Computer Sciences 118, no. 9 (2021): 1-8. https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2023301118.
• John Cook, Stephan Lewandowsky, and Ullrich K. H. Ecker, “Neutralizing Misinformation through Inoculation: Exposing Misleading Argumentation Techniques Reduces Their Influence,” PLoS ONE 12, no. 5 (2017), https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0175799.
• Kate Cox et al., COVID-19, Disinformation and Hateful Extremism: Literature Review Report (Cambridge, UK: RAND Europe for the Commission for Countering Extremism, March 2021), https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/993841/RAND_Europe_Final_Report_Hateful_Extremism_During_COVID-19_Final_accessible.pdf.
• Ecker, Ullrich K. H. “Correcting False Information in Memory: Manipulating the Strength of Misinformation Encoding and its Retraction.” Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 18. (February 2011), 570–578. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-011-0065-1.
• Ecker, Ullrich K. H. and Luke M. Antonio. “Can You Believe it? An Investigation into the Impact of Retraction Source Credibility on the Continued Influence Effect.” Memory and Cognition 49. (January 2021): 631-644. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13421-020-01129-y.
• Ferreira, Rodrigo and Moshe Y. Vardi. “Deep Tech Ethics: An Approach to Teaching Social Justice in Computer Science.” Proceedings of the 52nd ACM Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education, (March 2021): 1041-7. https://doi.org/10.1145/3408877.3432449.
• Fox, Craig R. and Martin Weber. “Ambiguity Aversion, Comparative Ignorance, and Decision Context.” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 88, no. 1 (May 2022): 476-98. https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.2001.2990.
• Gray, Colin M., Kou, Yuno, Battles, Byran, Hoggatt, Joseph and Austin L. Toombs. “The Dark (Patterns) Side of UX Design.” Proceedings of the 2018 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems – CHI ’18. New York, New York, USA: ACM Press, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1145/3173574.3174108. 
• Greifeneder, Rainer, Jaffe, Mariela, Newman, Eryn and Norbert Schwarz, eds. The Psychology of Fake News: Accepting, Sharing, and Correcting Misinformation. New York: Routledge, 2021.Brignull, Harry. “Types of Deceptive Design.” Deceptive Design, accessed May 2022. https://www.deceptive.design/types.
• Heilweil, Rebecca. “Why Algorithms Can Be Racist and Sexist: A Computer Can Make a Decision Faster. That Doesn’t Make It Fair.” Vox, Feb 18, 2020. https://www.vox.com/recode/2020/2/18/21121286/algorithms-bias-discrimination-facial-recognition-transparency
• Hertwig, Ralph and Till Grüne-Yanoff. “Nudging and Boosting: Steering or Empowering Good Decisions.” Perspectives on Psychological Science 12, no. 6 (2017): 973-86. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691617702496
• Kertysova, “Artificial Intelligence and Disinformation.”
• Jooyeon Kim et al., “Leveraging the Crowd to Detect and Reduce the Spread of Fake News and Misinformation,” in WSDM 2018: The Eleventh ACM International Conference on Web Search and Data Mining: Marina Del Rey, CA, USA, February 05–09, 2018 (New York: Association for Computing Machinery, 2018), 324–32, https://doi.org/10.1145/3159652.3159734.
• Anastasia Kozyreva, Stephan Lewandowsky, and Ralph Hertswig, “Citizens versus the Internet: Confronting Digital Challenges with Cognitive Tools,” Psychological Science in the Public Interest 21, no. 3 (December 2020): 103–56, https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100620946707.
• Philip Lorenz-Spreen et al., “How Behavioural Sciences Can Promote Truth, Autonomy and Democratic Discourse Online,” Nature Human Behaviour 4 (June 2020): 1102–9, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-020-0889-7.
• Katherine Miller, “Radical Proposal: Middleware Could Give Consumers Choices over What They See Online,” HAI Stanford University, October 20, 2021, https://hai.stanford.edu/news/radical-proposal-middleware-could-give-consumers-choices-over-what-they-see-online.
• Christopher Mims, “Without Humans, Artificial Intelligence Is Still Pretty Stupid,” Wall Street Journal, November 12, 2017, https://www.wsj.com/articles/without-humans-artificial-intelligence-is-still-pretty-stupid-1510488000.
• Sakari Nieminen and Lauri Rapeli, “Fighting Misperceptions and Doubting Journalists’ Objectivity: A Review of Fact-Checking Literature,” Political Studies Review 17, no. 3 (July 2018): 296–309, https://doi.org/10.1177/1478929918786852; Chloe Lim, “Checking How Fact-Checkers Check,” Research and Politics 5, no. 3 (July 2018), https://doi.org/10.1177/2053168018786848.
• Nitzberg and Carlton, “Technology Solutions for Disinformation”; Zhang and Ghorbani, “Overview of Online Fake News”; Lozano et al., “Veracity Assessment of Online Data.”
• David Scales et al., “Effective Ways to Combat Online Medical and Scientific Misinformation: A Hermeneutic Narrative Review and Analysis,” MediArXiv, February 2021, https://doi.org/10.33767/osf.io/rcugs
• Kai Shu et al., “Combating Disinformation in a Social Media Age,” WIREs Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery 10, no. 6 (August 2020), https://doi.org/10.1002/widm.1385
• Amy Sippit, “The Backfire Effect: Does it Exist? And Does It Matter for Factcheckers?” Full Fact, March 2019, https://fullfact.org/media/uploads/backfire_report_fullfact.pdf
• Cass R. Sunstein, “Nudges.gov: Behavioral Economics and Regulation,” in Oxford Handbook of Behavioral Economics and the Law, ed. Eyal Zamir and Doron Teichman (February 16, 2013), https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2220022.
• Swire and Ecker, “Misinformation and Its Correction.”
• Richard Thaler and Cass R. Sunstein, Nudge: Improving Decisions about Health, Wealth, and Happiness (New York: Penguin, 2009).
• Nathan Walter and Riva Tukachinsky, “A Meta-Analytic Examination of the Continued Influence of Misinformation in the Face of Correction: How Powerful Is It, Why Does It Happen, and How to Stop It?,” Communication Research 47, no. 2 (June 2019): 155–77.
• Xichen Zhang and Ali A. Ghorbani, “An Overview of Online Fake News: Characterization, Detection, and Discussion,” Information Processing & Management 57, no. 2 (March 2020), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ipm.2019.03.004

PATH 4: Require Platforms to Serve the Public Interest (Politics, Law, Business)

• Ardia, David, Evan Ringel, Victoria Smith Ekstrand, and Ashley Fox. Addressing the Decline of Local News, Rise of Platforms, and Spread of Mis- and Disinformation Online. Chapel Hill: UNC [University of North Carolina] Center for Media Law and Policy, December 2020. https://citap .unc .edu/ local -news-platforms-mis-disinformation.
• Arguedas, Amy Ross, Robertson, Craig T., Fletcher, Richard and Rasmus Kleis Neilsen. “Echo Chambers, Filter Bubbles, and Polarisation: A Literature Review.” Reuters, January 19, 2022. https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/echo-chambers-filter-bubbles-and-polarisation-literature-review.
• Balkin, Jack M. “How to Regulate (and Not Regulate) Social Media,” Knight First Amendment Institute at Columbia University, Occasional Papers (March 25, 2020). https://knightcolumbia.org/content/how-to-regulate-and-not-regulate-social-media
• Kalina Bontcheva and Julie Posetti, eds., Balancing Act: Countering Digital Disinformation While Respecting Freedom of Expression (Geneva, Switzerland, and Paris, France: International Telecommunication Union and UNESCO, for the Broadband Commission for Sustainable Development, September 2020), https://www.broadbandcommission.org//wp-content/uploads/2021/02/WGFoEDisinfo_Report2020.pdf
• Bozarth, Lia and Ceren Budak. “An Analysis of the Partnership between Retailers and Low-credibility News Publishers.” Journal of Quantitative Description: Digital Media 1, (April 2021). https://doi.org/10.51685/jqd.2021.010.
• Bozarth, Lia and Ceren Budak. “Market Forces: Quantifying the Role of Top Credible Ad Servers in the Fake News Ecosystem.” The International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media. (November 2020).
• Joshua A. Braun and Jessica L. Eklund, “Fake News, Real Money: Ad Tech Platforms, Profit-Driven Hoaxes, and the Business of Journalism,” Digital Journalism 7, no. 1 (January 2019): 1–21, https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2018.1556314.
• Brown, Sara. “The Case for New Social Media Business Models.” MIT Management. September 22, 2021. https://mitsloan.mit.edu/ideas-made-to-matter/case-new-social-media-business-models
• Clayton, Katherine, Spencer Blair, Jonathan A. Busam, Samuel Forstner, John Glance, Guy Green, Anna Kawata, et al. “Real Solutions for Fake News? Measuring the Effectiveness of General Warnings and Fact-Check Tags in Reducing Belief in False Stories on Social Media.” Political Behavior 42, (February 2019): 1073-1095. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-019-09533-0
• Cox, Kate, Ogden, Theodora, Jordan, Victoria and Pauline Paille. “COVID-19, Disinformation and Hateful Extremism: Literature Review Report,” Commission for Countering Extremism, (March 2021).Anderson, Janna, and Lee Rainie. “The Future of Digital Spaces and Their Role in Democracy.” Pew Research Center, November 22, 2021. https://www .pewresearch.org/ internet/ 2021/ 11/ 22/ the -future-of-digital-spaces-and-their-role-in-democracy
• Ghosh, Dipayan. “It’s All in the Business Model: The Internet’s Economic Logic and the Instigation of Disinformation, Hate, and Discrimination.” Georgetown Journal of International Affairs 21 (Fall 2020): 129- 35. https://doi.org/10.1353/gia.2020.0012.
• Giussani, Alessio. “Competing Over Truth: A Critical Analysis of EU Initiatives to Counter Disinformation (2015-2019).” Master’s diss., Aristotle University of Thessaloniki: Department of Digital Media, Communication and Journalism, January 2020.
• Hameleers, Michael, Powell, Thomas E., Van Der Meer, Toni G.L.A. and Lieke Bos. “A Picture Paints a Thousand Lies? The Effects and Mechanisms of Multimodal Disinformation and Rebuttals Disseminated via Social Media.” Political Communication 37, no. 2 (February 2020): 281-301. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2019.1674979.
• Newton Minow, “Preface: From Gutenberg to Zuckerberg,” in Martha Minow, Saving the News (New York: Oxford University Press, 2021), xv, xvii.
• Philip M. Napoli, Social Media and the Public Interest: Media Regulation in the Disinformation Age (New York: Columbia University Press, 2019).
• Philip M. Napoli and Fabienne Graf, “Social Media Platforms as Public Trustees: An Approach to the Disinformation Problem,” TPRC48: The 48th Research Conference on Communication, Information and Internet Policy, SSRN, December 14, 2020, http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3748544.
• Victor Pickard, “Restructuring Democratic Infrastructures: A Policy Approach to the Journalism Crisis,” Digital Journalism 8, no. 6 (2020): 704–19, https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2020.1733433.
• K. Sabeel Rahman, “Regulating Informational Infrastructure: Internet Platforms as the New Public Utilities,” Georgetown Law and Technology Review 2, no. 2 (February 23, 2018): 234–51, https://ssrn .com/ abstract=3220737.
• Simons and Ghosh, “Utilities for Democracy,” citing (1) Walton H. Hamilton, “Affectation with Public Interest,” Yale Law Journal 39, no. 8 (June 1930): 1089–1112, https://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/fss_papers/4669, and (2) Breck P. McAllister, “Lord Hale and Business Affected with a Public Interest,” Harvard Law Review 43, no. 5 (March 1930): 759–91.
• UNESCO, “Information as a Public Good,” 2021, https://en.unesco.org/sites/default/files/wpfd_2021_concept_note_en.pdf.
• Mason Walker and Katerina Eva Matsa, “News Consumption across Social Media in 2021,” Pew Research Center, September 20, 2021, https://www.pewresearch.org/journalism/2021/09/20/news-consumption-across-social-media-in-2021.
• Shoshana Zuboff, “You Are the Object of a Secret Extraction Operation,” New York Times, November 12, 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/11/12/opinion/facebook-privacy.html.

PATH 5: Repair Journalism and Roll Out New Curators (Journalism)

• Beers,  Andrew, McClure Haughey, Melinda, Arif, Ahmer and Kate Starbird. “Examining the Digital Toolsets of Journalists Reporting on Disinformation.” Proceedings of Computation + Journalism 2020. (2020). https://doi.org/10.1145/1122445.1122456
• Susan Benkelman, “The Sound of Silence: Strategic Amplification,” American Press Institute, December 11, 2019, https://www.americanpressinstitute.org/publications/reports/strategy-studies/the-sound-of-silence-strategic-amplification.
• Bras, Andrea. “How Platforms Curate and Elevate Reliable Information During Emergencies.” NewsQ News Quality Initiative (August 14, 2020). https://newsq.net/2020/08/14/how-platforms-curate-and-elevate-reliable-information-during-emergencies/
• Confessore, Nicholas. “How Tucker Carlson Stoked White Fear to Conquer Cable.” New York Times, April 30, 2022. https://www.nytimes.com/2022/04/30/us/tucker-carlson-gop-republican-party.html.
• De Moya Correa, Jesenia. “Community Media Keeps Outpacing Mainstream Media.” Nieman Labs. (2021). https://www.niemanlab.org/2021/12/community-media-keeps-outpacing-mainstream-media/
• Joan Donovan, “How Civil Society Can Combat Misinformation and Hate Speech without Making It Worse,” Medium, September 28, 2020, https://medium.com/political-pandemonium-2020/how-civil-society-can-combat-misinformation-and-hate-speech-without-making-it-worse-887a16b8b9b6.
• Joan Donovan et al., “Disinformation at Scale Threatens Freedom of Expression Worldwide,” Harvard Kennedy School: Shorenstein Center on Media, Politics and Public Policy, 2021, https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Expression/disinformation/3-Academics/Harvard-Shorenstein-Center.pdf.
• Donovan, Joan and danah boyd. “Stop the Presses? Moving From Strategic Silence to Strategic Amplification in a Networked Media Ecosystem,” American Behavioral Scientist 65, no. 2:333-350 (September 2019). https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764219878229.
• Forman, Craig I. “Solutions to America’s Local Journalism Crisis: Consolidated Literature Review.” Harvard Kennedy School: Shorenstein Center on Media, Politics and Public Policy, October 12, 2021. https://shorensteincenter.org/solutions-americas-local-journalism-crisis-consolidated-literature-review/#_ftn2.
• Glastris, Paul. “Introduction: Can Journalism Be Saved?” Washington Monthly, October 25, 2020. https://washingtonmonthly.com/magazine/november-december-2020/can-journalism-be-saved-2/.
• Graves, Lucas. “Boundaries Not Drawn: Mapping the Institutional Roots of the Global Fact-Checking Movement.” Journalism Studies 19, no. 5, (June 2016): 613-631. https://doi.org/10.1080/1461670X.2016.1196602
• Gregory, Sam. “Deepfakes, Misinformation and Disinformation and Authenticity Infrastructure Responses: Impacts on Frontline Witnessing, Distant Witnessing, and Civic Journalism.” Journalism, (December 2021). https://doi.org/10.1177/14648849211060644
  • Regina G. Lawrence et al., Building Engagement: Supporting the Practice of Relational Journalism, Agora Journalism Center, April 2019, https://agorajournalism.center/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/201904-Agora-Report-Building-Engagement.pdf.
  • Taeyoung Lee et al., “How to Signal Trust in a Google Search,” Center for Media Engagement, January 2021, https://mediaengagement.org/research/how-to-signal-trust-in-a-google-search.
  • Erik Nikolaus Martin, “Can Public Service Broadcasting Survive Silicon Valley? Synthesizing Leadership Perspectives at the BBC, PBS, NPR, CPB and Local U.S. Stations,” Technology in Society 64 (February 2021): 1–11, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2020.101451.
• “Media Manipulation Casebook,” Technology and Social Change Project, last modified 2022, https://mediamanipulation.org.
• Paul Mihailidis and Adam Gamwell, “Designing Engagement in Local News: Using FOIA Requests to Create Inclusive Participatory Journalism Practices,” Journalism Practice, September16, 2020, 1–20, https://doi.org/10.1080/17512786.2020.1819381.
• Victor Pickard, Democracy without Journalism? Confronting the Misinformation Society (New York: Oxford, 2020).
• Matt Walton, “It’s Time That Fox News Is Considered a Political Organization, Not a News Network,” Insider, March 28, 2021, https://www.businessinsider.com/fox-news-cable-political-organization-subscription-network-tucker-carlson-hannity-2021-3.
• Mason Walker, “U.S. Newsroom Employment Has Fallen 26% Since 2008,” Pew Research Center, July 13, 2021, https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2021/07/13/u-s-newsroom-employment-has-fallen-26-since-2008
• Ethan Zuckerman. “The Case for Digital Public Infrastructure,” Knight First Amendment Institute at Columbia University, January 17, 2020, https://knightcolumbia.org/content/the-case-for-digital-public-infrastructure

PATH 6: Build New Digital Public Squares

• Janna Anderson and Lee Rainie, “The Future of Digital Spaces and Their Role in Democracy,” Pew Research Center, November 22, 2021, https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2021/11/22/the-future-of-digital-spaces-and-their-role-in-democracy.
• Anne Applebaum and Peter Pomerantsev, “How to Put Out Democracy’s Dumpster Fire,” The Atlantic (April 2021), https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2021/04/the-internet-doesnt-have-to-be-awful/618079.
• Jack M. Balkin, “How to Regulate (and Not Regulate) Social Media,” Knight First Amendment Institute at Columbia University, Occasional Papers, March 25, 2020, https://knightcolumbia.org/content/how-to-regulate-and-not-regulate-social-media.
• danah boyd, “Knitting a Healthy Social Fabric,” Medium, May 20, 2021, https://zephoria.medium.com/knitting-a-healthy-social-fabric-86105cb92c1c.
• Brock, André Jr. “Distributed Blackness: African American Cybercultures. (New York: New York University Press, 2020).
• Joan Donovan et al., “Disinformation at Scale Threatens Freedom of Expression Worldwide,” Shorenstein Center on Media, Politics and Public Policy, February 15, 2021, https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Issues/Expression/disinformation/3-Academics/Harvard-Shorenstein-Center.pdf.
• Gavet, Maelle. Trampled by Unicorns: Big Tech’s Empathy Problem and How to Fix It. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2020.Top of FormBottom of Form
• Elizabeth Gehrman, “The Isolation of Social Media: Social Media Should Promote Conversation and Exchange, yet Increasingly It Doesn’t,” Harvard Medicine (Spring 2022), https://hms.harvard.edu/magazine/viral-world/isolation-social-media.
• Grassmuck, Volker Ralf. “Towards an Infrastructure for a Democratic Digital Public Sphere” in European Public Spheres, Digitisation and Public Welfare Orientation, iRights, edited by Alexander Baratsits (October 2021). https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3937500
• Guiao, Jordan and Peter Lewis. “The Public Square Project.” The Australia Institute: Centre for Responsible Technology, n.d. https://australiainstitute.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/210428-public-square-paper-WEB.pdf
• Haugen, Frances. “Europe Is Making Social Media Better without Curtailing Free Speech. The U.S. Should, Too.” New York Times
• Hwang, Tim. “Reimaging the Internet from the Initiative for Digital Public Infrastructure.” By Ethan Zuckerman. Public Infrastructure, December 2, 2020. https://publicinfrastructure.org/podcast/07-tim-hwang
• Lisa Marshall, “How Black Twitter Has Become the New ‘Green Book’—and More,” CU Boulder Today, October 27, 2021, https://www.colorado.edu/today/2021/10/27/how-black-twitter-has-become-new-green-book-and-more.
• Sahar Massachi, “How to Save Our Social Media by Treating It Like a City,” MIT Technology Review, December 20, 2021, https://www.technologyreview.com/2021/12/20/1042709/how-to-save-social-media-treat-it-like-a-city.
• Zachary J. McDowell and Matthew A. Vetter, Wikipedia and the Representation of Reality (New York: Taylor and Francis, 2022), https://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/50520.
• New_ Public, “The Case for Integrity Workers,” New_ Public, last modified February 27, 2022, https://newpublic.substack.com/p/-the-case-for-integrity-workers.
• New_ Public, “The Signals Research,” New_ Public, last modified March 7, 2022, https://newpublic.org/signals.
• Elinor Ostrom, Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990).
• Chand Rajendra-Nicolucci and Ethan Zuckerman, “Local Logic: It’s Not Always a Beautiful Day in the Neighborhood,” Toward a Better Internet (blog), November 30, 2020, https://knightcolumbia.org/blog/local-logic-its-not-always-a-beautiful-day-in-the-neighborhood.
• Preston M. Torbert, “‘Because It Is Wrong’: An Essay on the Immorality and Illegality of the Online Service Contracts of Google and Facebook,” Case Western Reserve Journal of Law and Technology and the Internet 12, no. 1 (2021), https://scholarlycommons.law.case.edu/jolti/vol12/iss1/2.
• Zuckerman, Ethan. “Building a More Honest Internet.” Columbia Journalism Review
• Ethan Zuckerman, “What Is Digital Public Infrastructure?,” Center for Journalism and Liberty, November 17, 2020, https://www.journalismliberty.org/publications/what-is-digital-public-infrastructure.